Targeting Viral and Cellular Cysteine Proteases for Treatment of New Variants of SARS-CoV-2.

The continuous emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants caused the persistence of the COVID-19 epidemic and challenged the effectiveness of the existing vaccines. The viral proteases are the most attractive targets for developing antiviral drugs. In this scenario, our study explores the use of HIV-1 protease inhibitors against SARS-CoV-2. An in silico screening of a library of HIV-1 proteases identified four anti-HIV compounds able to interact with the 3CLpro of SARS-CoV-2. Thus, in vitro studies were designed to evaluate their potential antiviral effectiveness against SARS-CoV-2. We employed pseudovirus technology to simulate, in a highly safe manner, the adsorption of the alpha (α-SARS-CoV-2) and omicron (ο-SARS-CoV-2) variants of SARS-CoV-2 and study the inhibitory mechanism of the selected compounds for cell-virus interaction. The results reported a mild activity against the viral proteases 3CLpro and PLpro, but efficient inhibitory effects on the internalization of both variants mediated by cathepsin B/L. Our findings provide insights into the feasibility of using drugs exhibiting antiviral effects for other viruses against the viral and host SARS-CoV-2 proteases required for entry.

PEGylated Liposomes Loaded with Carbamate Inhibitor ANP0903 Trigger Apoptosis by Enhancing ER Stress in HepG2 Cancer Cells.

Liver cancer is one of the most common causes of cancer death worldwide. In recent years, substantial progress has been made in the development of systemic therapies, but there is still the need for new drugs and technologies that can increase the survival and quality of life of patients. The present investigation reports the development of a liposomal formulation of a carbamate molecule, reported as ANP0903, previously tested as an inhibitor of HIV-1 protease and now evaluated for its ability to induce cytotoxicity in hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines. PEGylated liposomes were prepared and characterized. Small, oligolamellar vesicles were produced, as demonstrated by light scattering results and TEM images. The physical stability of the vesicles in biological fluids was demonstrated in vitro, alongside the stability during storage. An enhanced cellular uptake was verified in HepG2 cells treated with liposomal ANP0903, resulting in a greater cytotoxicity. Several biological assays were performed to elucidate the molecular mechanisms explaining the proapoptotic effect of ANP0903. Our results allow us to hypothesize that the cytotoxic action in tumor cells is probably due to the inhibition of the proteasome, resulting in an increase in the amount of ubiquitinated proteins within the cells, which in turn triggers activation of autophagy and apoptosis processes, resulting in cell death. The proposed liposomal formulation represents a promising approach to deliver a novel antitumor agent to cancer cells and enhance its activity.

The Pseudo-Symmetric N-benzyl Hydroxyethylamine Core in a New Series of Heteroarylcarboxyamide HIV-1 Pr Inhibitors: Synthesis, Molecular Modeling and Biological Evaluation.

Here, we report the synthesis, enzyme inhibition and structure-activity relationship studies of a new potent class of HIV-1 protease inhibitors, which contain a pseudo-symmetric hydroxyethylamine core and heteroarylcarboxyamide moieties. The simple synthetic pathway furnished nine compounds in a few steps with high yields. The compounds were designed taking into account our previous results on other series of inhibitors with different substituents at P' and P'' and different ways of linking them to the inhibitor core. Potent inhibitory activity was obtained with nanomolar IC50 values measured with a standard fluorimetric test in 100 mM MES buffer, pH 5.5, containing 400 mM NaCl, 1 mM EDTA, 1 mM DTT and 1 mg/ml BSA. Compounds 9a-c, containing the indole ring in P1, exhibited an HIV-1 protease inhibitory activity more powerful than darunavir in the same assay. To obtain molecular insight into the binding properties of these compounds, docking analysis was performed, and their binding properties were also compared.

Mitochondria-Mediated Apoptosis of HCC Cells Triggered by Knockdown of Glutamate Dehydrogenase 1: Perspective for Its Inhibition through Quercetin and Permethylated Anigopreissin A.

Metabolic reprogramming is a hallmark of cancer cells required to ensure high energy needs and the maintenance of redox balance. A relevant metabolic change of cancer cell bioenergetics is the increase in glutamine metabolism. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), one of the most lethal cancer and which requires the continuous development of new therapeutic strategies, shows an up-regulation of human glutamate dehydrogenase 1 (hGDH1). GDH1 function may be relevant in cancer cells (or HCC) to drive the glutamine catabolism from L-glutamate towards the synthesis of α-ketoglutarate (α-KG), thus supplying key tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle) metabolites. Here, the effects of hGLUD1 gene silencing (siGLUD1) and GDH1 inhibition were evaluated. Our results demonstrate that siGLUD1 in HepG2 cells induces a significant reduction in cell proliferation (58.8% ± 10.63%), a decrease in BCL2 expression levels, mitochondrial mass (75% ± 5.89%), mitochondrial membrane potential (30% ± 7.06%), and a significant increase in mitochondrial superoxide anion (25% ± 6.55%) compared to control/untreated cells. The inhibition strategy leads us to identify two possible inhibitors of hGDH1: quercetin and Permethylated Anigopreissin A (PAA). These findings suggest that hGDH1 could be a potential candidate target to impair the metabolic reprogramming of HCC cells.

Two Novel Precursors of the HIV-1 Protease Inhibitor Darunavir Target the UPR/Proteasome System in Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Cell Line HepG2.

Background: Several pre-clinical and clinical reports suggest that HIV-1 protease inhibitors, in addition to the antiretroviral properties, possess pleiotropic pharmacological effects including anticancer action. Therefore, we investigated the pro-apoptotic activity in tumor cells of two molecules, RDD-19 and RDD-142, which are hydroxyethylamine derivatives' precursors of darunavir and several HIV-1 protease inhibitors. Methods: Three hepatoma cell lines and one non-pathological cell line were treated with RDD-19 and RDD-142, and cell viability was assessed. The expression levels of several markers for ER stress, autophagy, cellular ubiquitination, and Akt activation were quantified in HepG2 cells treated with RDD-19 and RDD-142 to evaluate apoptotic and non-apoptotic cell death. Results: RDD-19 and RDD-142 showed a greater dose-dependent cytotoxicity towards the hepatic tumor cell line HepG2 compared to the non-pathological hepatic cell line IHH. Both molecules caused two types of cell death, a caspase-dependent apoptosis, which was ascertained by a series of biochemical and morphological assays, and a caspase-independent death that was characterized by the induction of ER stress and autophagy. The strong increase of ubiquitinated proteins inside the cells suggested that the target of these molecules could be the proteasome and in silico molecular docking analysis that was used to support the plausibility of this hypothesis. Furthermore, cells treated with the two compounds displayed decreased levels of p-AKT, which interferes with cell survival and proliferation. Conclusions: These findings demonstrate that two compounds, RDD-19 and RDD-142, have pleiotropic effects and that they may represent promising anticancer candidates.

Access to 12-Membered Cyclic ortho,meta-Diarylheptanoids: Total Synthesis of Actinidione via Isomyricanone.

We describe herein the first access to 12-membered cyclic[7,0]ortho,meta-diarylheptanoids. The key features of the synthesis include both a Suzuki-Miyaura coupling and a ring closing metathesis. Actinidione, a promising natural product, along with a bioactive tetracyclic derivative were obtained in 14 steps for the first time from cheap commercially available substrates with an overall yield of 18-21%. Our modus operandi complies with the principles of the synthesis ideality by using notably strategic reactions.

New Insights into the Exploitation of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Aglianico Leaf Extracts for Nutraceutical Purposes.

The leaves of Vitis vinifera L. have been used for a long time in traditional medicine for the treatment of many ailments. Grape polyphenols, indeed, have been demonstrated to be able to defend against oxidative stress, responsible for various disorders such as cancer, diabetes and neurodegenerative diseases. The effects of different extraction techniques, Soxhlet (SOX), Accelerated Solvent (ASE 40, ASE 50) and Ultrasound Assisted Extraction (UAE) were studied in this work to evaluate their impact on the chemical profile and bioactive potential of Vitis vinifera L. (cv. Aglianico) leaf extracts. The phytochemical profile was investigated by HPLC-DAD and 9 phenolic compounds were identified and quantified in the extract. Moreover, the antioxidant, anticholinesterase and antityrosinase activities were evaluated. In detail, the total polyphenol content and antioxidant activity (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacities and ß-Carotene Bleaching assays) were evaluated and compared to assess the Relative Antioxidant Capacity Index (RACI). To test the inhibitory activity of extracts towards cholinesterases, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) inhibition assays were performed. SOX and ASE 50 have shown the highest value of RACI, 0.76 and 0.65, respectively. Regarding enzymatic inhibitory activity, ASE 50 (IC50 = 107.16 ± 8.12 µg/mL) and SOX (IC50 = 171.34 ± 12.12 µg/mL) extracts exhibited the highest AChE and BChE inhibitory activity, respectively, while UAE (IC50 = 293.2 ± 25.6 µg/mL, followed by SOX (IC50 = 302.5 ± 38.3 µg/mL) showed the highest tyrosinase inhibition value. Our results demonstrated for the first time that Aglianico leaves are important sources of phenols that could be used to prevent oxidative stress and be potentially helpful in diseases treatable with tyrosinase and cholinesterase inhibitors, like myasthenia gravis or Alzheimer's.

New synthesized polyoxygenated diarylheptanoids suppress lipopolysaccharide-induced neuroinflammation.

In neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis, neuroinflammation induced by the microglial activation plays a crucial role. In effort to develop effective anti-neuroinflammatory compounds, different new linear polyoxygenated diarylheptanoids were synthesized. In LPS-triggered BV-2 microglial cells their ability to reduce the concentration of IL-6 and TNF-α pro-inflammatory cytokines was evaluated. Moreover, their effect on NF-κB and ATP citrate lyase (ACLY), a recently emerged target of metabolic reprogramming in inflammation, was assessed. Finally, we turned our attention to inflammatory mediators derived from the cleavage of citrate catalyzed by ACLY: prostaglandin E2, nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species. All compounds showed null or minimal cytotoxicity; most of them had a great anti-neuroinflammatory activity. Diarylheptanoids 6b and 6c, bearing a halide atom and benzyl ether protective groups, exhibited the best effect since they blocked the secretion of all inflammatory mediators analyzed and reduced NF-κB and ACLY protein levels.

Last Decade of Unconventional Methodologies for the Synthesis of Substituted Benzofurans.

This review describes the progress of the last decade on the synthesis of substituted benzofurans, which are useful scaffolds for the synthesis of numerous natural products and pharmaceuticals. In particular, new intramolecular and intermolecular C-C and/or C-O bond-forming processes, with transition-metal catalysis or metal-free are summarized. (1) Introduction. (2) Ring generation via intramolecular cyclization. (2.1) C7a-O bond formation: (route a). (2.2) O-C2 bond formation: (route b). (2.3) C2-C3 bond formation: (route c). (2.4) C3-C3a bond formation: (route d). (3) Ring generation via intermolecular cyclization. (3.1) C7a-O and C3-C3a bond formation (route a + d). (3.2) O-C2 and C2-C3 bond formation: (route b + c). (3.3) O-C2 and C3-C3a bond formation: (route b + d). (4) Benzannulation. (5) Conclusion.

Phytochemicals of Minthostachys diffusa Epling and Their Health-Promoting Bioactivities.

The genus Minthostachys belonging to the Lamiaceae family, and is an important South American mint genus used commonly in folk medicine as an aroma in cooking. The phytochemical-rich samples of the aerial parts of Minthostachys diffusa Epling. were tested for pharmacological and health-promoting bioactivities using in vitro chemical and enzymatic assays. A range of radical scavenging activities of the samples against biological radicals such as nitric oxide and superoxide anion and against synthetic 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl and 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) radicals, the ferric reducing antioxidant power and the lipid peroxidation inhibition were determined and ranked using the 'relative antioxidant capacity index' (RACI). The ethyl acetate fraction showed the highest RACI of +1.12. Analysis of the various fractions' inhibitory ability against enzymes involved in diabetes (α-amylase and α-glucosidase), and against enzymes associated with Parkinson's or Alzheimer's diseases (acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase) also suggested that the ethyl acetate fraction was the most active. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of the ethyl acetate fraction showed more than 30 polyphenolic compounds, including triterpenes. The inhibitory cholinesterase effects of the triterpenes identified from M. diffusa were further analysed by in silico docking of these compounds into 3D-structures of acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase. This is the first study on pharmacological activities and phytochemical profiling of the aerial parts of M. diffusa, showing that this plant, normally used as food in South America, is also rich in health-promoting phytochemicals.

Antioxidant, Antidiabetic, and Anticholinesterase Activities and Phytochemical Profile of Azorella glabra Wedd.

Oxidative stress is involved in different diseases, such as diabetes and neurodegenerative diseases. The genus Azorella includes about 70 species of flowering plant species; most of them are commonly used as food and in particular as a tea infusion in the Andean region of South America in folk medicine to treat various chronic diseases. Azorella glabra Wedd. aerial parts were firstly analyzed for their in vitro antioxidant activity using different complementary assays. In particular, radical scavenging activity was tested against biological neutral radical DPPH; ferric reducing power and lipid peroxidation inhibitory capacity (FRAP and Beta-Carotene Bleaching tests) were also determined. The Relative Antioxidant Capacity Index (RACI) was used to compare data obtained by different assays. Then, the inhibitory ability of samples was investigated against α-amylase and α-glucosidase enzymes involved in diabetes and against acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase enzymes considered as strategy for the treatment of Parkinson's or Alzheimer's diseases. Moreover, the phytochemical profile of the sample showing the highest RACI (1.35) and interesting enzymatic activities (IC50 of 163.54 ± 9.72 and 215.29 ± 17.10 µg/mL in α-glucosidase and acetylcholinesterase inhibition, respectively) was subjected to characterization and quantification of its phenolic composition using LC-MS/MS analysis. In fact, the ethyl acetate fraction derived from ethanol extract by liquid/liquid extraction showed 29 compounds, most of them are cinnamic acid derivatives, flavonoid derivatives, and a terpene. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report about the evaluation of significant biological activities and phytochemical profile of A. glabra, an important source of health-promoting phytochemicals.

New heteroaryl carbamates: Synthesis and biological screening in vitro and in mammalian cells of wild-type and mutant HIV-protease inhibitors.

New heteroaryl HIV-protease inhibitors bearing a carbamoyl spacer were synthesized in few steps and high yield, from commercially available homochiral epoxides. Different substitution patterns were introduced onto a given isopropanoyl-sulfonamide core that can have either H or benzyl group. The in vitro inhibition activity against recombinant protease showed a general beneficial effect of both carbamoyl moiety and the benzyl group, ranging the IC50 values between 11 and 0.6 nM. In particular, benzofuryl and indolyl derivatives showed IC50 values among the best for such structurally simple inhibitors. Docking analysis allowed to identify the favorable situation of such derivatives in terms of number of interactions in the active site, supporting the experimental results. The inhibition activity was also confirmed in HEK293 mammalian cells and was maintained against protease mutants. Furthermore, the metabolic stability was comparable with that of the commercially available inhibitors.

Future in the Past: Azorella glabra Wedd. as a Source of New Natural Compounds with Antiproliferative and Cytotoxic Activity on Multiple Myeloma Cells.

Multiple myeloma (MM) is the second most common hematologic malignancy and, although the development of novel agents has improved survival of patients, to date, it remains incurable. Thus, newer and more effective therapeutic strategies against this malignancy are necessary. Plant extracts play an important role in anti-tumor drug discovery. For this reason, in the investigation of novel natural anti-MM agents, we evaluated the phytochemical profiles, in vitro antioxidant activity, and effects on MM cells of Azorella glabra (AG) Wedd. Total polyphenols (TPC), flavonoids (TFC), and terpenoids (TTeC) contents were different among samples and the richest fractions in polyphenols demonstrated a higher antioxidant activity in in vitro assays. Some fractions showed a dose and time dependent anti-proliferative activity on MM cells. The chloroform fraction (CHCl3) showed major effects in terms of reduction of cell viability, induction of apoptosis, and cell cycle arrest on MM cells. The apoptosis induction was also confirmed by the activation of caspase-3. Importantly, the CHCl3 fraction exhibited a negligible effect on the viability of healthy cells. These results encourage further investigations on AG extracts to identify specific bioactive compounds and to define their potential applications in MM.

Antioxidant Activity and Phytochemical Characterization of Senecio clivicolus Wedd.

Antioxidant phytochemicals play a key role in oxidative stress control and in the prevention of related disorders, such as premature aging, degenerative diseases, diabetes, and cancer. The aim of this study was to investigate the potential antioxidant activity and the phytochemical profile of Senecio clivicolus Wedd., a perennial shrub, belonging to the Asteraceae family. Despite the wide interest of this family, this specie has not been investigated yet. S. clivicolus aerial parts were extracted with 96% ethanol. Then, the ethanol extract was fractionated by liquid/liquid extraction using an increasing solvents polarity. Total polyphenol and terpenoid contents were measured. Moreover, the antioxidant activity was evaluated by six different complementary in vitro assays. The Relative Antioxidant Capacity Index (RACI) was used to compare data obtained by different tests. The sample showing the highest RACI was subjected to characterization and quantitation of its phenolic composition using LC-MS/MS analysis. The ethyl acetate fraction, investigated by LC-MS/MS analysis, showed 30 compounds, most of them are chlorogenic acid and flavonoid derivatives. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report about the evaluation of antioxidant activity and phytochemical profile of S. clivicolus, underlying the importance of this species as a source of health-promoting phytochemicals.

Mussel-Inspired Electro-Cross-Linking of Enzymes for the Development of Biosensors.

In medical diagnosis and environmental monitoring, enzymatic biosensors are widely applied because of their high sensitivity, potential selectivity, and their possibility of miniaturization/automation. Enzyme immobilization is a critical process in the development of this type of biosensors with the necessity to avoid the denaturation of the enzymes and ensuring their accessibility toward the analyte. Electrodeposition of macromolecules is increasingly considered to be the most suitable method for the design of biosensors. Being simple and attractive, it finely controls the immobilization of enzymes on electrode surfaces, usually by entrapment or adsorption, using an electrical stimulus. Performed manually, enzyme immobilization by cross-linking prevents enzyme leaching and was never done using an electrochemical stimulus. In this work, we present a mussel-inspired electro-cross-linking process using glucose oxidase (GOX) and a homobifunctionalized catechol ethylene oxide spacer as a cross-linker in the presence of ferrocene methanol (FC) acting as a mediator of the buildup. Performed in one pot, the process takes place in three steps: (i) electro-oxidation of FC, by the application of cyclic voltammetry, creating a gradient of ferrocenium (FC+); (ii) oxidation of bis-catechol into a bis-quinone molecule by reaction with the electrogenerated FC+; and (iii) a chemical reaction of bis-quinone with free amino moieties of GOX through Michael addition and a Schiff's base condensation reaction. Employed for the design of a second-generation glucose biosensor using ferrocene methanol (FC) as a mediator, this new enzyme immobilization process presents several advantages. The cross-linked enzymatic film (i) is obtained in a one-pot process with nonmodified GOX, (ii) is strongly linked to the metallic electrode surface thanks to catechol moieties, and (iii) presents no leakage issues. The developed GOX/bis-catechol film shows a good response to glucose with a quite wide linear range from 1.0 to 12.5 mM as well as a good sensitivity (0.66 µA/mM cm2) and a high selectivity to glucose. These films would distinguish between healthy (3.8 and 6.5 mM) and hyperglycemic subjects (>7 mM). Finally, we show that this electro-cross-linking process allows the development of miniaturized biosensors through the functionalization of a single electrode out of a microelectrode array. Elegant and versatile, this electro-cross-linking process can also be used for the development of enzymatic biofuel cells.

Permethylated Anigopreissin A inhibits human hepatoma cell proliferation by mitochondria-induced apoptosis.

Anigopreissin A belongs to stilbene di- and oligomeric forms containing a benzofuran ring system whose biological activity is unknown. Recently, a completely protected Anigopreissin A - Permethylated Anigopreissin A - has been synthesized. We use MTT bioassay to assess Permethylated Anigopreissin A cytotoxicity in different human cell lines. Furthermore, fluorescence microscopy, caspase activity, real-time PCR and Western-blot methods are employed to evaluate apoptotic cell death pathway in liver cancer cells. Permethylated Anigopreissin A kills different types of human cancer cells but does not affect non-tumorigenic cells. The Permethylated Anigopreissin A concentration that causes 50% inhibition of liver tumor cells is 0.24µM. Hepatoma cells treated with Permethylated Anigopreissin A arrest their cell cycle in G1 phase. We also demonstrate that Permethylated Anigopreissin A-triggered cell death occurs by apoptosis. Decrease of the BCL2 expression levels, loss of the mitochondrial membrane potential, release of cytochrome c and increase of caspase 9 activity highlight a key role for mitochondria in Permethylated Anigopreissin A-induced apoptosis. Our study shows that Permethylated Anigopreissin A kills liver cancer cells through intrinsic apoptotic pathway.

Ligand-free Suzuki coupling of arylboronic acids with methyl (E)-4-bromobut-2-enoate: synthesis of unconventional cores of HIV-1 protease inhibitors.

An effective ligand-free Suzuki coupling protocol to unite methyl (E)-4-bromobut-2-enoate with several arylboronic acids has been accomplished. Thus, a number of variously functionalized methyl 4-arylcrotonates have been achieved in high to excellent yields under mild conditions. This method enables the preparation of diverse aryl-substituted cores of HIV-1 protease inhibitors.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of novel small non-peptidic HIV-1 PIs: the benzothiophene ring as an effective moiety.

Synthesis and biological evaluation of a new series of potential HIV-1 protease inhibitors incorporating different heterocycles are described. The variation of heteroatom in such molecules has displayed totally different biological activities and a benzothiophene containing inhibitor has shown high potency against wild type HIV-1 protease with IC(50)=60 nM, thanks to the lower desolvation penalty to be payed by such hydrophobic moiety.

Stereoselective intramolecular cyclization to 4-(hydroxymethyl)-3-(1H-indolyl)oxazolidin-2-ones.

A simple high-yield three-steps route to optically active 4-hydroxymethyl-3-(1H-indolyl)oxazolidin-2-ones from (S)-glycidol is described. The key intermediates (R)-oxiran-2-ylmethyl 1H-indol-4/-5-ylcarbamates are obtained in high yields from (S)-glycidol. These are readily transformed to oxazolidin-2-ones, very interesting building blocks in drug synthesis.

Heterocycles in peptidomimetics and pseudopeptides: design and synthesis.

This minireview provides a brief outline of the peculiar aspects of the preparation of peptidomimetic and pseudopeptidic structures containing heterocycles. In particular novel tricyclic structures are investigated as potential drugs.